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ORIGINAL PAPER |
Surveillance Research Program, DCCPS, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
Correspondence: Marsha E. Reichman, Ph.D., Surveillance Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, 6116 Executive Boulevard, Suite 504, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-8316, USA. Telephone: 301-594-7032; Fax: 301-408-4077; e-mail: reichmam{at}mail.nih.gov ; web site: http://seer.cancer.gov
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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Learning Objectives
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results and Discussion
Conclusions
References
After completing this course, the reader will be able to:
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ABSTRACT |
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TopLearning ObjectivesAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResults and DiscussionConclusionsReferences |
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The likelihood of developing cancer during one’s lifetime is 1 in 2 for males and 1 in 3 for females, based on 1998–2000 data. It is estimated that approximately 9.6 million people in the U.S. who have had a diagnosis of cancer are alive. Five-year relative survival varies greatly by cancer site and stage at diagnosis, and tends to increase with time since diagnosis. The median age at cancer diagnosis is 68 for men and 65 for women. The 5-year relative survival rate for persons diagnosed with cancer is 62.7%, with variation by cancer site and stage at diagnosis. For patients diagnosed with cancers of the prostate, female breast, corpus uteri, and urinary bladder, the relative survival rate at 8 years is over 75%.
Key Words. SEER • Cancer • Survival • Incidence • Mortality • Prevalence
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INTRODUCTION |
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TopLearning ObjectivesAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResults and DiscussionConclusionsReferences |
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TopLearning ObjectivesAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResults and DiscussionConclusionsReferences |
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Data are actively collected by SEER cancer registries and reported to the NCI on all cancers of residents of the geographic area of the registry. Cases are ascertained from records of hospitals, private laboratories, radiotherapy units, nursing homes, and other health service units that provide diagnostic or treatment services, and from death certificates of residents when cancer is listed as a cause of death. Data collected on each cancer include patient demographics, primary cancer site/type, morphology, diagnosis confirmation, extent of disease, first course of treatment, and active patient follow-up for vital status including cause of death. Cancers are coded according to the International Classification of Diseases for Oncology Second Edition (ICD-O-2) [3]. For 1992–2000 diagnoses, site and histology were coded by ICD-O-2 criteria, and all cases before 1992 were machine converted to ICD-O-2 coding. Stage at cancer diagnosis was recorded by extent of disease that can be computer converted into tumor/node/metastasis (TNM) Third Edition stages [4].
The cancer incidence rate is the number of new cancers of a specific site/type, or of all sites combined, occurring in a specified population over a specific time period. It is usually expressed as the number of cancers per 100,000 population at risk per year. For cancer sites occurring in only one sex, the population at risk is the sex-specific population (e.g., males for prostate cancer). The death rate is the number of deaths with cancer as the underlying cause of death occurring in a specified population over a specific time period, usually expressed per 100,000 population at risk per year. Numerators for incidence rates are derived from SEER Program data. The SEER Program obtains information on all deaths occurring in the U.S. from the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) on an annual basis.
Data are available for reporting incidence and mortality approximately 2 years after the end of the calendar year. Thus, in 2002, incidence and death data were available through 2000. This 2-year period for reporting incidence data is needed for adequate time to complete the first course of treatment and for ascertainment of information on the majority of cases, especially those diagnosed in outpatient settings. Updating of cancer registry data from previous years is an ongoing process resulting in the most accurate statistics possible. While information on 98% of most cancers is collected within 2–3 years, time periods for a few sites may be longer [5]. This may result in adjustments to incidence rates over time due to the updated numerators. In this report, we present the observed data. Modeling to account for these reporting delays may result in somewhat higher predicted rates.
Denominator data for both incidence and death rates are obtained from the Bureau of the Census. Census data are available from the 1990 and 2000 Decennial Census data collections. Population data for years between 1990 and 2000 were initially estimated based on data from 1990, with estimates being updated after data from the 2000 Census became available. Data presented here are based on updated intercensal estimates for the period 1991–1999 [6]. When intercensal corrections are made, cancer incidence and death rates may be altered due to changes in the denominators.
Estimates of racial/ethnic populations include the use of methods to bridge differences in collection of these data between the 1990 and 2000 Censuses [7, 8]. The 2000 Census was the first census where respondents could choose multiple racial/ethnic groups rather than a single group. Methods were developed by the NCHS and the Bureau of the Census to provide estimates of 2000 data on race/ethnicity that are consistent with the race/ethnicity groups enumerated in the 1990 Census [9]. Estimates of the racial/ethnic populations of Hawaii are the results of local surveys performed periodically by the Hawaii Department of Health [8, 10]. Incidence and death rates were age adjusted where indicated using the 2000 U.S. standard population and age-specific rates based on 5-year age groups.
The annual percentage change (APC) is a summary statistic that indicates the trend over a defined time period. It is obtained by fitting a regression line through the log of data points for the time period using weighted least squares. The slope of the line is tested for significant increases or decreases. These methods are described in greater detail in the SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975–2000 [11].
Relative survival is the observed survival (the proportion of cancer patients surviving for a specified time period) adjusted for expected mortality [12]. While the observed survival is calculated taking into account those dying of the given cancer as well as of all other causes, relative survival provides an estimate of the likelihood that cancer patients will not die from causes associated with their cancer. Since the relative survival rate estimates only the effect of the cancer, it is always larger than the observed survival. The relative survival rate measures the survival of the patient cohort compared with the component of the general population having the same characteristics as the patient cohort with respect to age, race, sex, and calendar period. Generally, this means that the relative survival rate measures the effect of the cancer alone, because it is usually the only factor that makes the patient cohort different from the general population. However, sometimes the patients in a cohort may have some other factor that places them at a greater risk for dying compared with the general population. For example, there is a higher percentage of smokers among lung cancer patients than among the general population. Smokers tend to be at greater risks for other diseases, such as heart disease. Relative survival cannot separate the risk of death from lung cancer from the risk of dying of noncancer causes due to smoking. Therefore, the relative survival rate for lung cancer is an underestimate of the effect of lung cancer alone.
Complete prevalence for cancer cases is provided as of January 1, 2000. In this instance, prevalence is defined as the number of people in a population who are alive on a certain date and who previously had a diagnosis of cancer. Complete prevalence is estimated by applying the completeness index method described elsewhere [13]. Calculation of U.S. prevalence as of January 1, 2000 takes into account adjustments for racial differences between the SEER Program data and the total U.S. population and updated population estimates resulting from the 2000 Census data.
Lifetime probabilities of developing cancer were determined by applying age-specific cancer rates from 1998–2000 from SEER-12 Areas to a hypothetical population of 10,000,000 live births. This population is considered to be at risk of developing cancer or of dying from noncancer-related causes before developing cancer. Modeling techniques described elsewhere [14] were then used to calculate lifetime probabilities.
It is estimated that, in 2003, 9,000 children under the age of 15 will be diagnosed with cancer and 1,500 will die of cancer. Unlike adult cancers, pediatric and adolescent cancers are often best described by a combination of histologic type and primary site [15]. Rates for individual pediatric/adolescent cancers also vary widely by age. For these reasons, it was not possible to adequately discuss both adult and childhood/pediatric cancers here. Consequently, only data on adult cancers are presented. Data on childhood/adolescent cancers were reviewed recently in another publication [16]. Cancers included in this report are generally those for which the estimated number of new cases in the U.S. in the year 2003 exceeds 15,000 [17].
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION |
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TopLearning ObjectivesAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResults and DiscussionConclusionsReferences |
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for the time period 1996–2000. More than 40% of cases of bone and joint cancers, cancer of the cervix uteri, Hodgkin lymphoma, Kaposi’s sarcoma, acute lymphocytic leukemia, cancer of the testis, and thyroid cancer were diagnosed in patients younger than 45 years old. In addition to these, the majority of cases (>50%) of cancers at the following sites were diagnosed before age 65: brain and other nervous system, female breast, anus, anal canal and anorectum, corpus uteri and uterus, NOS, eye and orbit, skin (melanoma), oral cavity and pharynx, ovary, and soft tissue including heart.
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shows incidence rates and median ages at diagnosis for the more frequently occurring cancers in males and females. The incidence rate in females for all sites combined is approximately 75% that of males. Among males, the cancer with the highest incidence rate is prostate, 170 per 100,000 males, followed by lung, with a rate slightly less than half that of prostate, and colon. The three most frequently occurring cancers among women are breast, with an incidence rate of 135 per 100,000 women, lung, and colon. For cancers that are common in both males and females, the incidence rates tend to be higher in males. For example, the incidence rate of cancer of the colon/rectum in females is about 72% that found in males. An exception is thyroid cancer where the incidence rate is higher in females. Cancer occurs primarily at older ages with the median age at diagnosis being 68 for males and 65 for females. The median age at diagnosis among more commonly occurring cancers was 65 or under among both men and women for cancer of the brain and other central nervous system (CNS) cancers, melanoma, cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx, and thyroid cancer. In addition, the median age at diagnosis was 65 or under among women for cancers of the breast, corpus uteri and uterus, NOS, and ovary. Among men, this was also the case for cancers of the kidney and renal pelvis and the liver and intrahepatic bile duct and for leukemia and non-Hodgkin lymphomas.
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. For all cancer sites combined, among males, African Americans have the highest rates, while among females, Caucasians have the highest rates. For all cancer sites combined and for colorectal and lung cancers, males have higher incidence rates than females for each racial/ethnic group observed. For both colorectal and lung cancers, African Americans have higher incidence rates than other racial/ethnic groups among both males and females, although rates for lung cancer in females are similar among African Americans and Caucasians. For breast cancer, Caucasian females have the highest incidence rates. For prostate cancer, African-American males have the highest incidence rates, 1.7 times that of Caucasians. While cancer incidence rates for the American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) population of the U.S. overall are often found to be lower than those for other race/ethnic groups, these rates vary widely geographically [18], and rates for some SEER Program registries are significantly higher than rates for the U.S. population as a whole. This is particularly true for rates of cancers of the lung and colon/rectum reported by the Alaska Native Tumor Registry [19].
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. The only statistically significant increases in APC for incidence rates during the period 1992–2000 were found for breast cancer among Caucasians, Asian/Pacific Islanders, and Hispanics. Statistically significant decreases in APC were observed for all cancer sites combined among males of all race/ethnic groups observed and for males and females combined, with the exception of Hispanics. For females, however, the APC remained essentially stable over this time period, with the exception of breast cancer. Decreases in APC were observed for lung cancer in Caucasian, African-American, and Hispanic males and when males and females were considered together, for all racial/ethnic groups except Asian/Pacific Islanders. Decreasing APCs were observed in prostate cancer for all racial/ethnic groups shown except Asian/Pacific Islanders.
The pattern of cancer death rates (Table 4) is similar to that for incidence in that racial/ethnic groups with higher incidence rates tend to have higher death rates. One anomaly is breast cancer, where African-American females have a higher rate than Caucasian females for mortality but a lower rate for incidence. Trends show that the only statistically significant increases in APC in death rates for the period 1992–2000 occurred for lung cancer among Caucasian and African-American females. Significant decreases in death rates were observed for Caucasians and African Americans of both sexes for cancer at all sites combined and for colorectal cancer, as well as for female breast cancer and for prostate and lung cancer among men. Decreases in APC for all sites for males and females combined were observed for all groups shown except the AI/AN population.
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). The estimate for the total U.S. population of the prevalence of individuals alive on January 1, 2000 who had a previous diagnosis of cancer at any time in the past is about 9.6 million. This estimate includes individuals who were recently diagnosed with cancer, those who have survived many years after diagnosis, those with active cancer, and those who are cancer free. The cancers with the highest prevalence are those that have both high incidence rates and are associated with relatively good survival. For example, there are over 2 million women alive today who had a previous diagnosis of breast cancer, and more than 1.6 million men are alive today who have had a previous diagnosis of prostate cancer. On the other hand, lung cancer has a high incidence rate but a generally poor prognosis. Therefore, there are fewer lung cancer survivors than survivors of some of the less frequently diagnosed cancers, like melanoma. The prevalences of lung cancer survivors are more similar for males and females than expected, given the much higher incidence rate of lung cancer among men, but are also a reflection of the better survival rates and longer life expectancies of women. Other cancer sites shown in Table 5 with high lethalities are the pancreas, stomach, and liver.
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, varies considerably with stage and cancer site. Lung cancer relative survival is low in comparison with the other cancers shown in Table 6. For patients diagnosed with stage I lung cancer, the 5-year relative survival rate is 56%, compared with only 2% for those diagnosed with stage IV disease. However, only 12.2% of lung cancers are diagnosed at stage I. Therefore, the overall relative survival rate is low, only 15% at 5 years. For many cancers, the overall relative survival rate is high, over 90%, when the cancer is diagnosed early (stage I). For most cancers, patients have a low relative survival if the cancer has metastasized before diagnosis. Cancers that are associated with good prognoses, or high relative survival rates for all stages combined, tend to have been diagnosed more frequently at earlier stages than those with overall poor prognoses. For cancer sites shown in Table 6, survival is similar for males and females except for urinary bladder cancer, where males have higher 5-year relative survival rates for all stages, and for stage I lung cancer, where females have a higher 5-year relative survival rate.
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presents 5-year relative survival rates conditional on patients surviving 1 year, 2 years, and 3 years after diagnosis. That is, it presents the probability of surviving 5 additional years given that the patient has already survived 1 year, 2 years, or 3 years from the time of diagnosis. For some cancers, patients who have survived for 3 years after diagnosis have a very good chance of surviving for an additional 5 years even though the 5-year relative survival rate from the time of diagnosis may be poor. For example, for lung cancer, the 5-year relative survival rate from diagnosis is only 15%, but the 5-year survival rate rises to about 75% for patients who have already survived 3 years since diagnoses. Similarly, for colorectal cancer, the 5-year relative survival rate from time of diagnosis is 62%, but it rises to 91% for patients who have already survived 3 years.
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. The observed 5-year survival rate provides an estimate of the percent of those diagnosed with cancer who survive 5 years after diagnosis and reflects the effects of both noncancer and cancer-related causes of death. For example, the 5-year relative survival rate for prostate cancer is 96%, whereas the observed survival rate is only 74%. This effect becomes more pronounced with increasing age at diagnosis due to the greater probability of deaths from other causes. For cancer of the lung and bronchus, 5-year relative and 5-year observed survival rates are similar among males and females. In the case of cancers that are rapidly fatal, relative and observed survival rates may be very similar regardless of age.
The most frequently quoted survival statistics are for 5 years. However, data in Figure 1 make it clear that, for some cancer sites, survival for time periods other than 5 years may be equal or more important milestones. For cancers of the lung and bronchus, the relative survival curve flattens greatly at 3 years. There is a similar effect, although somewhat less pronounced, for cancers of the corpus uteri and uterus, NOS, and of the colon/rectum. Changes in relative survival over time become clearer when examined by stage at diagnosis. Figure 2 shows data for cancers of the colon/rectum (A), lung (B), female breast (C), and ovary (D). In the cases of colorectal and lung cancers diagnosed at stage IV, there are clear changes in the relative survival curves at about 3 years. This is also the case for lung cancers diagnosed at stage III. In the cases of stages I, II, and III colorectal cancer, relative survival rates at 8 years are more than 50%. In the cases of stage IV breast and ovarian cancers, relative survival declines more gradually than for either stage IV colorectal or lung cancers. However, relative survival does not level off in the same fashion. The relative survival rates for stage I ovarian and breast cancers are over 90% at 8 years.
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CONCLUSIONS |
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Survival statistics, which provide information on prognosis, are influenced by many factors including stage at diagnosis, timely treatment, and available treatment options. While there are several ways of calculating relative survival statistics, in general, relative survival for a given time period is measured by examining individuals receiving a cancer diagnosis in that time period. It thus has cohort effects and can be greatly influenced by changes in treatment patterns such as the introduction of new, more effective chemotherapy regimens. Mortality, on the other hand, measures deaths due to cancer in a given time period, irrespective of when patients were diagnosed. Death rates, then, are measuring deaths for a group of individuals who may have had very different treatment options available. For this reason, death rate statistics are much less sensitive than survival rate statistics to the introduction of treatment advances. This can lead to a situation where survival for a given time period is increasing while little change in mortality is observed.
Recent reports have documented the decline in cancer mortality that began in the early 1990s [22, 23]. The decline in cancer mortality for the total U.S. population was statistically significant in 1994 through 1998. In the period 1998–2000 the rates leveled off. This may be partially due to a change in the classification of deaths due to cancer. Mortality reflects a mixture of cancer diagnoses made at various points in the past, with differences in available diagnostic practices, treatment options, and levels of supportive care. Much of the overall mortality decline has been due to those cancers for which interventions have been introduced into the general population. Site-specific interventions include prevention programs such as that for smoking cessation, screening programs such as mammography, pap smears, and colorectal cancer screening and treatment advances. Thus, a significant part of the overall decline in cancer mortality appears to be due to the success of various national initiatives sponsored by the NCI.
During the diagnostic work-up of a cancer patient, a physician may be interested in the short- and long-term prognoses experienced by similar populations of cancer patients. While 5 years is often referred to as a milestone in survival, for some cancer sites, other time periods may have greater prognostic significance. Relative survival also changes with time since diagnosis. In counseling patients, relative survival for time periods other than 5 years and relative survival conditional on survival for a specific time period since diagnosis can be calculated, based on currently available data, for population groups by age, stage at diagnosis, gender, and possibly other factors such as race/ethnicity and histologic type. Observed survival, taking into account all causes of death, is always less than relative survival. The magnitude of this difference may vary with age and comorbidities for population groups. In the cases of cancers associated with high lethalities there may be little difference between observed and relative survival rates. The NCI has recently begun an initiative to increase research on rare cancers of high lethality [24]. This includes cancer sites such as the pancreas, esophagus, and liver.
The group designated as AI/AN is composed of a number of different tribes in a variety of geographic areas. Despite reported cancer incidence rates for this combined group that are lower than for the U.S. population as a whole, rates for this group in several, individual SEER Program registries are higher than overall SEER Program rates and than rates for the U.S. population as a whole [18]. Reasons for this include regional differences among population segments, different levels of case reporting and identification of race/ethnicity, and variations in cancer risk factors. While the AI/AN population in Alaska can be enumerated more easily due to geographic definition, it is particularly difficult to enumerate the AI/AN population in most areas of the U.S. To a lesser extent, similar issues are applicable to the Hispanic and to Asian/Pacific Island groups as well. These issues point to the continued need for more detailed information on subgroups of the U.S. population.
Cancer statistics are a foundation of our ability to measure progress against cancer. A high level of continuous vigilance is necessary to use these statistics to detect changes in risk factors, including environmental and lifestyle effects. In addition, there continue to be new initiatives and research on prevention and treatment that may impact cancer incidence, survival, and mortality. To this end, the SEER Program cancer statistics can be used to monitor changes and to point to areas that need closer attention from the oncology and public health communities.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT |
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REFERENCES |
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